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| Introduction
| In the northern part of Thailand, Lamphun Municipality is situated 24 kilometers south of Chiang Mai. The Municipality has a population of 15,000 and an administrative area of six square kilometers. The Kuang River flows through the eastern part of the municipality.
The pollution of this river, caused by domestic wastewater flowing into it, had become so serious recently as to require pollution control measures to deal with it. In response to this requirement, the Global Environment Centre Foundation (GEC) provided technical assistance with regard to the treatment of domestic wastewater over a period of three years from FY 1998. Lamphun Municipality, on its part, has promoted the laying of sewer pipes and the construction of a central wastewater treatment facilities.
In addition to these technical efforts, it is important to raise the environmental awareness of local people to reduce domestic wastewater pollution. Accordingly, GEC began the Demonstration Project of Environmental Preservation Activities with Community Participation in FY 2001. Lamphun Municipality and the Pollution Control Department of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment of Thailand have been cooperating with GEC throughout.
This project has two objectives. One is the improvement of the water quality of the Kuang River by formulating and implementing a particular program, based on experiences accumulated through environmental preservation activities in Japan. The other is the training of future leaders to continue the environmental preservation activities established under the project. This project has been promoted by a working group that consists of persons who have long experience in activities for raising environmental awareness and experts in environmental problems related to water.
This manual has been prepared for the leaders of environmental preservation activities that are focused on rivers, based on experience accumulated through the project activities conducted together with Lamphun Municipality. This manual consists of two parts. Chapters I and II introduce assessment of local environmental problems, the methods for conducting environmental surveys of rivers, and a basic knowledge of water quality. Chapter III introduces examples of a workshop for leaders and the observation visit to a river for ordinary citizens. Both were carried out in Lamphun Municipality in January 2002 using some of the approaches introduced in Chapter II.
There is a phrase, "a living document." This phrase means that a practical document, such as a manual, is improved through use. This process of improvement is like the learning process, in which knowledge and skills are acquired through experience. This manual has just been born. The people concerned with this project expect that those who use this manual in the field will give us their feedback in terms of opinions and requests, and as a result, the manual will become easier to use and expand with more substantial contents.
We also hope that the global network of environmental preservation activities that are focused on rivers will expand through the use of this manual.
March 2002 Global Environment Centre Foundation The most important environment for people encompasses the houses they live in, the local town they walk around in, and the fields, rice paddies, grasslands, forests, rivers and seashores surrounding the town. In other words, it is the space that people constantly see, touch and feel together with their families.
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| Chapter I From Awareness of Problems in the Local Environment to their Solution
When something has an adverse effect on such a local
environment, the first step is to conduct a survey in
order to determine what has happened and to clarify
the issues. Subsequently, measures to solve any problems
can be considered and implemented. Lastly, verification
is required as to whether the problems have been solved.
If the problems are solved, activities from the survey
to the implementation of the measures can be considered
to have been successful. If the problems remain unsolved,
the reasons for this must be investigated to plan for
the follow-up activities. The environmental problems
of rivers are considered here as an example.
| 1. Awareness of the problems Surveys are conducted on the basis that local people have become aware that something has had an adverse effect on the local environment. With regard to rivers, for example, they have become aware that the water is more turbid than before, the number of fish has decreased, the water has decreased in volume, their local river is more liable to flooding after rain, or the water emits a foul odor.
2. Clarification of the problems Ambiguous expressions are sometimes used, for example, "dirty." Although the expression "The river has become dirty." points out the problem, it does not clarify the core of the problem. For the clarification of the problem, the state of "dirty" needs to be specified, for example, rubbish is littered along the riverbank, the water smells at the riverside, or the water is turbid and colored.
In addition, the turbidity of the water needs to be examined to confirm that the water has become turbid. The number of fish also needs to be counted to confirm that it has actually decreased.
3. Causes of the problems
It is necessary to identify the causes of the problem.
In many cases, local people know the reasons for the
environmental deterioration of a river and the causes
of the water pollution. Specifically, the reasons include
that a certain area along the upper stream has become
more populated with an increase wastewater discharges
into the river, or that there has been a change in the
direction of the river flow due to the construction
of a barrage for agriculture. In order to identify the
causes, it is also necessary to refer to old records
as well as to ask other people, since they might know
more about the river.
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4. Groups to think and act together
Cooperation with other people promotes the solution
of problems, although activities achieve the solution
can be carried out individually. There are some cases
in which different opinions cannot be coordinated within
a group. In loose-knit groups, people can act separately
in such cases, but they can cooperate when they agree
on a course of action.
5. Recording Once the decision has been made to act to achieve a solution of the problem, it is recommended that a record be kept of what has been observed, what has been heard, what has been thought about, and what has been done in a special notebook with the date. The notebook will be referred to for checking the previous records while conducting a survey, and it will be used again to draw up the conclusions at the end of the survey. The methods and content of the recording may differ between individuals.
6. Reporting When conclusions are drawn about the problem through an analysis of the results of the surveys, others who live in the local town must be informed of the conclusions, since the measures to solve problems need to be considered and put into practice together with these people. There are various styles used to prepare reports and there are also variations in the contents. The reason for this is that such reports need to be in a form that is suitable for the people who will read them in order to correctly convey the intentions of the reporters.
7. Review Each action has a beginning and an ending. At the beginning, the purpose of the action must be clarified, and at the end, the results of the action must be evaluated. In the evaluation, the results are classified into three categories: good points, bad points, and changes. If there are many good points, the action can be regarded as achieving its purpose. In this case, the action is completed. If there are many bad points, the action must be regarded as a failure. These bad points, however, provide lessons for formulating the improved measures for subsequent action. The category "changes" is used to review whether any changes in the people and surrounding aspects have occurred through performing the action. When an action is taken, a chain of changes is necessarily generated in the surroundings, like a ripple effect. Actions to improve the environment of rivers will lead to various improvements in the local communities as well as the environment, and the people concerned will have a variety of learning experiences through performing these actions. |
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| Chapter II Guidance for the Activities 1.
Surveys - Environmental surveys of rivers (1). Observation of rivers a)
Observation of rivers and their riparian areas
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No other habitat on the earth attracts a grater diversity of living animals and plants than rivers, ponds, lakes, seas, and, in particular, their shores and riparian areas. Among these places related to water, rivers are considered here, and the essential points to consider in conducting environmental surveys of rivers are discussed.
Rivers originate from rain, that is, when the rain reaches the ground the water gathers to form a river. A river consists of a continuous water flow of water from its upper areas to its lower regions, and many stream branches flowing down from the mountains join together during their course. Consequently, the shape of a river is like a big tree stretching out its branches. Attention should be paid to the following two properties of water when considering the environment of rivers.
1. Water flows from the upper streams to the lower streams.
2. Many substances can dissolve in water | The following is derived from these two properties. If the water of a river is polluted at a certain location, pollutants must have flowed into the river from a location higher up the river. Conversely, if pollutants flow into a river at a certain location, they will affect the river lower downstream.
If the survey of a river reveals the pollution of the river, the causes can be detected in its upper streams. In addition, the pollution affects its lower stream. Consequently, the survey of the environment of a river needs to cover not only one specific site but also the upper and lower streams of the site.
Essential points of observation
The observation of rivers begins with examination of the higher ground along a river. The conditions of the riparian areas need to be examined, including whether there are many houses, fields and rice paddies, or roads. When it rains, rainwater flows from higher .ground into rivers, taking with it soil and other pollutants. It is necessary to clarify what types of pollutants can flow into the river.
Water flows into a river from two directions: one
is from the upper streams of the river, and the other
is from the banks of the river when it rains.
The configuration of the channel and route of a natural river is constantly changing, with an increase or decrease in its width and angle of slope. Along with these changes, the velocity of the current also changes. A river has broad shallows, where river water flows moderately; rapids, where the river is shallow and narrow; and pools, where the river is deep and water flows slowly. Since living organisms live in different habitats in accordance with
.the species and the phases of their life cycle, rivers that have varied configurations are essential to maintaining aquatic life.
It is necessary to examine whether there are banks between the river and any residential .areas, fields or rice paddies. It is also necessary to examine whether the banks are formed naturally or artificially.
Some rivers have barrages and dams to control flooding
and to draw water. Dams with high water levels are generally
constructed across the upper streams of rivers in mountainous
areas, and barrages with a water level of one to several
meters are constructed in the plain to draw water for
agriculture, industry and urban use. The construction
of dams and barrages causes changes in the environment
of a river by halting or slowing down the current of
the river. If eutrophicated water is retained, plankton
proliferates to cause turbidity and foul odors. Many
dams and barrages have facilities to control the volume
of water according to the season. It is important to
examine who controls the current of the rivers and how
they control them. It also necessary to examine who
benefits from the use of water through the dams and
barrages. In addition, the dams and barrages should
to be checked to see if they have fishways, without
which the fish cannot move freely along the river.
A dry riverbed is defined as the ground between the bank and the stream. Usually, it does not retain water on its surface. However, it is covered with water when the river overflows, and it reappears when the water subsides. Particular living organisms sometimes inhabit the dry riverbeds. Since dry riverbeds are near water and have fertile soil, but have fewer vermin, crops are often cultivated there, although there is always the risk of flooding.
.Attention should be paid to the fact that the environment of dry riverbeds is sometimes changed by artificial reclamation due to land development.
The waterside is the area where the water of the river comes into contact with the land, and .also where aquatic life meets terrestrial life. At the waterside, particular plants grow, and fish, insects, birds, and mammals feed and raise their young.
Flowing water provides a habitat for fish. If the water is transparent, waterweeds grow at .the bottom of the river. If the water becomes turbid, these waterweeds will die due to a lack of light.
Riverbeds provide habitats for larvae, shellfish and shrimps. When toxic substances and silt, which consists of extremely fine rock powder, flow down from the upper streams, these .organisms die due to the toxicity and the clogging of their gills. Although fish can swim away from these unusual substances, most life in the riverbeds cannot survive such attacks.
- Riparian forests, grasslands, and ponds
There are many species of birds and insects living in riparian forests, grasslands and ponds.
Some forests and cliffs provide shade over the surface of the river. If a small river is .completely covered by shade, the temperature of the water is low due to the lack of sunlight. Some species of fish and aquatic insects gather in such shady areas.
People use rivers not only for the supply of water itself, but also for the fish and shellfish that live in it, and to transport cargo by boat. In addition, humans express a close spiritual relationship to rivers in their religions, legends, literature, and paintings.
(b) Observation of riparian life, including plants
 Algae blooms along the shore |
Riparian life, including plants, is affected by changes in the volume of river water according to seasons, changes in the configuration of riparian areas due to the construction of bridges and other structures, and the deterioration in water quality caused by waste or other pollutants. As a result, some riparian life, including plants, disappears, or alternatively it may proliferate. However, if the riparian environment is improved, life that has not been found there before may appear at the waterside. At the same time, this is also a habitat for plants, which are essential for life.
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For example, in areas where there are many dragonflies, many skins shed by the dragonfly larvae can be found left after the emergence of the adult dragonfly when examining the stems and leaves of the surrounding plants. Dragonfly larvae grow in water, shedding their skins many times, and then emerge out of
the water. Such an observation reveals that riparian plants are essential for the life cycle of dragonflies. When waterfowl occur in a particular spot, this indicates that there will always be the fish and insects they feed on nearby. Also, when large fish are seen, the life they feed on will be found right beside them.
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Small fish and fish fry are often found behind rocks, among waterweed, and under algae. In addition, fish spawn is sometimes laid by the roots of waterweed and between algae. Observation of these should also be carried out by turning over stones and pulling up the algae. At this time, make sure that the footholds of the observers are steady.
Considerable change is always perceived when it occurs, but small changes are noticed only through frequent observation. It is therefore important to observe conditions in the water and the waterside over time, even for a short time, whenever the observers pass by rivers, ponds, ditches, and streams, in addition to observation on designated days. In this way, new changes will be discovered.
c) Recording The results of observation need to be recorded, since records that are accumulated over a long period provide the key to understanding changes in rivers. The following are items are to be recorded.
- Weather of the previous day
The weather of the previous day needs to be recorded since rainfall on the previous day affects the volume of river water.
- Weather on the day of the observation
Since the weather changes during the day, this change needs to be simply recorded, for example, fair to cloudy.
- Locations and times of the observations
The locations and times of the observations need to be determined in advance according to the purpose of the survey, and they should be recorded.
The color of the water is essential for the observation of river conditions and needs to be recorded. Since it is impossible to describe colors accurately, observers may describe the colors as they perceive them. Since there are differences in the perception of colors
between observers, it is preferable for several observers to participate in judging the colors. The following are examples of recording the color.
 Standard Colors of Ponds |
Transparency:
The bottom is visible/Although the bottom is invisible, the estimated transparent depth is X meters, etc.
Colors: Dark brown - brown - light brown - light brown/green - light green - green- bluish green, etc.
Brightness of the colors: Pitch-black - black - dark gray - gray - whitish - white, etc.
Other information: The color is dappled/ Oil is floating on the surface, etc
There is a method of record colors numerically. In this method, a color that looks as close as possible to that of the observed water is identified from a list of "Standard Colors of Ponds," and the number corresponding to the color is recorded. Standard Colors of Ponds
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Since it is difficult to describe odors, observers may provide an example of something whose odor resembles the odor of the water under examination.
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(Reference) Descriptions listed in the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) | |  |
| Classification | Types of odors |
| 1. Fragrance | Odor of melons, violets, garlic, cucumbers, various fragrances or spices |
| 2. Vegetable odors | Odors of algae, green grass, wood, and seaweed |
| 3. Soil and mold odors | Odors of soil, swamps, and mold |
| 4. Fish and shellfish odors | Odors of fish, cod-liver oil, and clams |
| 5. Chemical odors | Odors of phenol, tar, oil, fat, paraffin, chlorine, hydrogen sulfides, chlorophenol, pharmacies, and chemicals
| | 6. Rotten matter odors | Odors of garbage, sewage, pigsties, and decomposed organic matter |
| 7. Putrid odors | Strong putrid odors of fish, pigsties and decomposed organic matter |
| - Velocity of the water current
The velocity of the water current is recorded with the use of descriptions, such as a torrent, a strong current, an average current, a weak current, a stagnated current, and a counter current.
The current of the water can be recorded numerically using the method of dropping a floating object onto the surface of the river and then recording the distance the object moves over a certain appropriate period of time from 1 - 30 seconds.
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The water level is recorded by describing in words the position of the water surface where it is in contact with a fixed structure. The water level can also recorded in figures by placing an upright stick marked at 10 cm intervals at the same location in the river itself. However, it is dangerous to use this method if there is a large volume of water in the river. It is desirable for a
water gauge to be placed at a fixed location by the river authority.
| There are some cases in which the volume of the water is more important than its quality, depending on the purpose of the survey. The volume of the water is calculated using the velocity of the water current and the cross-sectional area of .the river. The cross-sectional area is calculated by multiplying the width of the river by its depth.
- Aquatic life, including plants
If possible, small fish and fish fry should be caught and their side view should be observed, since it is difficult to identify them just by observing them from above. For the observation, the color, shape and size should be recorded. It is recommended that the size should be measured by compared it with leaves of nearby grasses.
Plants are recorded by taking photos, drawing pictures and collecting them to preserve them. All of these are maintained together with a record of the locations.
The types of wastes are recorded, including wastes floating on the water, those washed up on the riverbank, and those discarded on the shore. The number of items of waste is recorded if the waste can be counted. More simply, "a lot" or "a little" is recorded if the waste
cannot be easily counted. If the source of the waste can be assumed, this assumption should be recorded.
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| There are no standard forms to record these items. The following is an example of a record form. |
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| Record Form |
| Recorder | |
| Date | | Time | |
| Weather of the previous day | | Weather on the observation day | |
| Location | | | |
| River water | Color: | Odor: | |
| | Current: | Level: | |
| | Volume: | | |
| Aquatic life, including plants | |
| Wastes | | | Other information
| - The state of the dry riverbeds and bank protection
- The state of the branch streams and drainage ditches
- Surrounding houses and restaurants
Any aspect that attracts the attention of the observers should be recorded. | | (2). Survey of the water quality a) Water quality
Water quality is defined as the physical, chemical and biological properties of the water. Water temperature is an example of one of the physical properties. The chemical properties are determined by the types and quantity (properties) of substances that are present in the water in the form of ions or particulates. Some of these substances are harmful to human beings and other life even in extremely small amounts. The biological properties depend on the aquatic bacteria, plankton and other aquatic life.
< Water pollution >
Water pollution is an adverse change in the water quality due to contamination by foreign matter. The state of water pollution is represented by the types and concentration (properties) of the substances that are causing the pollution. Although natural factors can also cause pollution, it is particularly artificial substances that cause problems. Water pollution is classified into the following three types.
Organic matter is a source of water pollution. In water, microorganisms decompose
organic matter in order to take in or absorb the nutrients,
and at this time oxygen that is dissolved in the water
is consumed. When there is an excessive amount of organic
matter, all the dissolved oxygen is consumed, which
is referred to as reduction. In this state of reduction,
hydrogen sulfide and methane are generated to cause
the emission of foul smelling gases. In addition, aquatic
life cannot inhabit such water.
When there is an excessive amount of nutrients in the water, including nitrogen and .phosphorus, which is essential for the growth of plants, the algae and plankton propagate in large numbers, and the rapid growth of water hyacinths can also be observed.
- Pollution caused by hazardous substances, such as heavy metals, pesticides and artificial
chemicals
< Changes in the water quality >
The state of water pollution is not always the same. It varies according to changes in the water volume between the rainy and dry seasons, the condition of seasonal plants, daily changes in human activities, and other factors.
- Seasonal changes (temperature and precipitation)
When it rains, rainwater flows into rivers bringing with it soil to contaminate the river water. The components of the soil affect the water quality. In addition, the increase in water volume decreases the concentration of dissolved substances in the water, which also affects .water quality. Since water quality usually deteriorates in the dry season, conducting the survey in the dry season is recommended.
- Weekly changes (weekdays and holidays)
Industrial activities have less impact on holidays
than on weekdays. The impact of industrial wastewater
is more stable in the second half of the week than in
the first half.
- Daily changes (daytime and night-time)
Daily changes in human activities, such as life and industrial activities, affect the quality of wastewater discharged from these activities. Along with this, the water quality of rivers also changes when such wastewater flows into the rivers.
Note: There are also changes throughout the months and years. b)
Planning and implementation of the surveys on water quality
| < Purpose of the surveys >
First of all, the purpose of the survey, in other words, what the observers want to know, should be considered by compiling a list of the phenomena that the observers notice in daily life. When the survey is being conducted by a team, it is important to discuss and understand the purpose in advance among observers. Without sufficient discussion and understanding, it is difficult to reach agreement on measurement methods, and furthermore, the observers cannot sufficiently understand the results of the measurements.
The purpose of the survey on water quality includes finding out the causes of water pollution and clarifying the changes in pollution. Identification of the causes and levels of pollution should take priority over other purposes, in order to obtain the key to the solution of the problems. A survey may be conducted in order to clarify whether there are differences in the degree of pollution between different locations.
To examine changes in water pollution according to the seasons, months, days, and time is sometimes useful to surmise the cause of the pollution. In addition, continuous surveys at the same location and under the same conditions over a long period can reveal whether the pollution of a river has improved or deteriorated.
| < Determination of the measurement details > After establishing the purpose, the measurement items are determined. In order to clarify the state of water pollution, it is necessary to measure substances that cause pollution (water quality indicators, whose parameters are used in the assessment of the types and levels of pollution). The measurement items will vary according to the type of pollution. It is recommended that at the beginning, measurement not be conducted covering many items, but select items to clarify the general condition of the rivers and to obtain a broad picture of
the pollution situation, and then gradually add measurement items according to the purpose of the survey.
The location, time and frequency of measurement should then be determined. In this determination, it necessary to consider that water quality is always changing, as mentioned above. When the results of measurements taken at various locations are compared, it is desirable that the measurement should be conducted at the same time on the same day. If this is impossible, the measurement should be conducted on the same day of the week and at the same time of day. It is important to conduct measurement under the same conditions as far as possible.
- Locations for the measurement
Measurement should be conducted at locations where the river water can be measured before and after the inflow of wastewater discharged from households and factories. When any branch stream flows into a river, a location at the lowest point of the stream of the branch should be chosen as the measurement location. If there are any important areas to measure, continuous measurement is desirable at fixed locations in these areas.
- Frequency of the measurement
The time and frequency of the measurement requires consideration. It is desirable that measurement be conducted within the same time zone on the same day of the week in the same season for the comparison of measurement data. It can be considered that measurement at important locations should be conducted more frequently.
< Conducting the measurement >
- Scooping up and preservation of the water samples
Scooping up the water samples is the first very important step in measurement. Consequently, great care is required in scooping up water that represents the actual river water to be surveyed. Scooping up such water is more difficult than observers imagine.
In many cases, observers standing on a bridge throw a bucket tied with a rope into the river to scoop up the water. The method of scooping should be devised for each site. Attention should be paid not to mingle the mud along the river and from the riverbed with the water sample, since the mud affects the measurement.
Since inaccurate measurement values are obtained when the water is collected in dirty containers, the containers for scooping water and for preservation should always be washed using the water to be surveyed before scooping up and preserving the water samples. The bottle should be filled completely with the sampling water without including any air and with the cap fastened tightly, in order to prevent oxidation by the air. The measurement should also be carried out as soon as possible.
If the measurement is carried out on the spot, the water sample needs to be divided according to the requirements of the analysis items in order to prevent one measurement affecting the sample for another measurement.
Measurement with simple device
Water temperature
Since temperature affects chemical changes and the movement of living organisms, water temperature is an essential factor in water quality surveys.
|  Fig. 1 Reading the thermometer |
< Device > Thermometers are used. Although electronic ones can be
used, alcohol thermometers are the handiest to use. Since the glass thermometer tubes are easy to break, the use of the ones protected by metal tubes is recommended.
The tip of the thermometer is dipped in the water for one
minute before reading the scale that shows the temperature.
Although it is easy to read the scale on alcohol thermometers,
attention needs to be paid to the position of the eyes when
looking for the level of the indicator liquid. Figure 1 shows
the proper position of the thermometer and the eyes.
When access to the edge of water is easy, observers only have to dip the thermometer into the river water. When the access
is difficult, the temperature of the water sample is measured.
Air temperature Since the air temperature naturally affects water temperature, this also needs to be measured.
< Device >
Thermometers used for the measurement of the air temperature are basically the same as the ones for water temperature. If the same thermometer is used for the measurement of both air and water temperature, the air temperature is measured first. The reason for this is that the air temperature is shown 2-3 C lower than it actually is when the tip of the thermometer is wet. It is desirable that the thermometer for water and the one for air should be different.
Penetration degree
Penetration degree here means the degree of the transparency of water. When water is polluted, the transparency is reduced. If the water is brown, it can be considered that the water includes mud and soil, and if the water is green, it can be considered that the water includes plankton and algae.
< Device >
A penetration gauge is used. It is a long transparent cylinder with a cross-shaped piece set at the bottom. However, observers can make a substitute by themselves.
< Material > A crosspiece (Fig. 2), a two-liter PET bottle, a knife, a fishing line, a marker pen, and a ruler
< Procedure for making the device >
 Fig. 2 Crosspiece |
 Fig. 3 Tying up with the fishing line |
(i)
Cut off the bottom of a clean empty PET bottle with a knife.
(ii) Pierce the rim of the bottle near where the
bottom was removed, by pushing the end of a piece of wire heated with a cigarette lighter
(iii) Tie the crosspiece together with fishing line. (iv) Tie up the PET bottle with the other end of the fishing line
through the hole made in (ii).
.(v) Draw a vertical line on the outside surface of the bottle, graduate
the line in centimeters by drawing horizontal lines, and write in
the figures indicating every five centimeters with a marker pen.
< Procedure for using the device
>
(i) Cap the PET bottle, and carefully insert the crosspiece into the bottle, with the cap kept below it.
(ii) Carefully fill the bottle with water from the
river to the top horizontal line. If the crosspiece
turns upside down, correct it with the line tied to
the piece in order that it can be observed. (iii) Check whether the crosspiece at the bottom can be clearly seen,
while keeping the bottle horizontal with the left hand. Be
careful not to expose the penetration gauge to the sun during
measurement. Hold the gauge in the shade or shade it with the
bodies of the observers during the measurement. |
 Fig. 4 Handmade penetration gauge |
(v) As soon as the crosspiece can be clearly seen, fasten the cap and read the scale to make the record.
(vi) When the measurement is completed, wash the device thoroughly in clean water and dry it to keep it until next time.
Note: Transparency degrees are very similar to penetration degrees. Transparency degrees are measured by sinking a white disk with a diameter of 25 cm into the water, and reading the depth where the circumference of the disk become indistinguishable from the water.
Measurement through the Pack Test Chemical components dissolved in water cannot be measured by sight. A measurement method using simple instruments is introduced here to measure the degree of pollution mainly caused by domestic wastewater. (Refer to Section 3. Implementation of solutions - measures to take in daily life) The Pack Test is adopted as the measurement method. Although even school children can measure chemical components using the Pack Test, the results obtained from the measurement will be useless without a basic knowledge of chemical analysis. It is important in chemical analysis to clarify the purpose and object of the measurement, and subsequently, to correctly understand and assess what the measurement reveals.
COD
COD (chemical oxygen demand) is a water quality indicator that represents the degree of water pollution. COD reflects the quantity of organic matter in the water that causes the pollution. The larger the value for the COD, the more polluted the water is. The pollution of urban rivers is usually caused by wastewater from households and restaurants. Other sources pollutants in rivers include wastewater from factories, facilities for livestock farming and agricultural land where chemical fertilizers are being used. When such wastewater flows into rivers in large amounts, the COD levels of the rivers become high.
Note The Pack Test adopts an oxidation test method with alkaline potassium permanganate at room temperature. Although the COD value is commonly used throughout the world as an indicator of water pollution, there are several types of measurement methods. Different methods result in completely different values being obtained. In Japan, the oxidation method using potassium permanganate is usually adopted. In contrast, an oxidation method using chromic acid is adopted in many other countries, and there is no correlation between the values obtained from these two methods.
The oxidation method using potassium permanganate is easy for measurement, and safe to dispose of after measurement, but weak in oxidation. Through the oxidation method with chromic acid, the value obtained is an approximation of the theoretical value due to the strong oxidation. This method, however, requires heating for measurement, and serious attention is also required to the disposal after measurement since toxic chemicals are used in the measurement.
< Procedure for the Pack Test to measure COD >
| (i) Pull out the line at the edge of the tube.
(ii) Hold the lower half of the tube with one hand, with the opening upward, and push out the air inside thetube.
(iii) While keeping hold of (ii), dip the opening of the tube into the water sample. Relax the hand and suck the water to halfway up the tube. Approximately three seconds is required to suck the water. If it takes a shorter time, air must be mixed in and the quantity of water will be insufficient. If the tube is filled with water to less than half of its capacity, press down the tube with its opening upward, and suck the water up again. Be careful not to press the tube with its opening downward, to prevent draining the reagent in the tube.
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(iv) Shake the tube gently five or six times. After five minutes at a temperature of 200C, compare the color of the contents of the tube with those in the table of standard colors, as shown in the figure below. Shake to mix the contents of the tube one or two times before the five minutes is up.
< Assessment of the results >
- 0-5 Even natural clear water has a value within this range due to waterweed and other deposits along the shore.
- 5-10 It is possible that a small amount of pollutants are contained in the water.
- 10-20 A considerable amount of pollutants are contained in the water.
- More than 20 The level of pollution is serious.
< After use >
- Return the lines of the tubes after use, and dispose of them in the designated manner as incombustible waste.
- When a laminated pack is opened, use all the five tubes in the pack as soon as possible. If some tubes remain unused, put them back in the bag to preserve them together with the drying agent. Seal the preservation bag tightly
- Store them in a cool shady place. Avoid keeping them in hot places, such as sunny places or in the trunk of a car. If they are to be preserved for a long time, put them in a refrigerator.
Warning: Never drain the liquids from the tubes.
Since the liquids in tubes are alkaline, observers must not let them enter their eyes or touch them with their hands. If the liquids should enter the eyes or observers should touch them, wash them off with clean water.
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COD is not the only item to measure in river water surveys. The following are the items of chemical
* measurement that are easy to measure through the Pack Test.
* Several types of Pack Test are available depending on the measurement item.
pH
pH (potential of hydrogen) is the hydrogen ion concentration exponent, and represents the acidity and alkalinity expressed in values between zero and fourteen. When the pH value is seven, the water solution is neutral, and when the pH value is between zero and seven, the water solution is acid and the lower the value, the stronger the acidity. When the pH value is between seven and fourteen, the water solution is alkaline and the higher the value, the stronger the alkalinity.
In most cases, the pH value of river water ranges between six and eight. It is possible, however, that the pH value could change under various conditions, including the inflow of wastewater and the growth of plants.
Note The geological features of particular sites affect the pH value of water in rivers, lakes and marshes. Photosynthesis* is another factor that affects the pH value of water. In daylight, carbon dioxide (CO2) is consumed by the algae and other aquatic plants and oxygen (O2) is generated and released into the water through photosynthesis. As a result of the increase in the oxygen content of the water, the pH value sometimes exceeds ten.
* Photosynthesis can be defined as a process in which plants in light consume carbon dioxide and generate oxygen.
DO The value of DO represents the quantity of dissolved oxygen in water. Many species of aquatic life, as well as terrestrial life, require oxygen. In addition, oxygen is required in the oxidative decomposition of organic matter, which is the source of pollution. Consequently, the quantity of dissolved oxygen significantly affects the quality of the water. The fact that dissolved oxygen has been decreasing in quantity represents a condition in which the water pollution has become serious.
Note Although some dissolved oxygen results from photosynthesis by algae and other aquatic plants, a large part of it originates from air entering the water. The quantity of dissolved oxygen at saturation levels changes according to the temperature of the water. The lower the temperature is, the larger the quantity of dissolved oxygen. For example, a maximum of 8.8 mg/L of oxygen is dissolved in water at 20C and an atmospheric pressure of one.
Ammonia When leftover food and human waste are decomposed, ammonia is produced at first. Ammonia is converted to nitrous acid by the oxygen in the water. Consequently, if ammonia is detected in an
area, the source of pollution is considered to be nearby. Also, based on the quantity of ammonia obtained from the measurement, the degree of pollution can be estimated and the source of pollution can be surmised.
Note The detection of ammonium reveals that the existence of fish and other aquatic life might be threatened. The larger the pH value becomes, the more toxic the water
Nitrous acid Nitrous acid is generated through the oxidation of ammonia by microbes and other agents. Nitrous acid is also generated through the reduction of nitric acid. The reduction means the restoration of oxidized matter through removal of the oxygen.
Note Since nitrous acid has a strong reducing power, it adversely affects aquatic life in the water. On the other hand, it is used as an antioxidant due to this power, and is sometimes added to food.
| | Sources: Daredemo dekiru "Pakkutesutode kankyoshirabe" Written by Kanji Okauchi, published by Godoshuppan |
Nitric acid Nitrous acid is further decomposed and oxidized into nitric acid. Most nitric acid in river water originates from inorganic fertilizer, decomposing plants, domestic wastewater, sewage sludge that is disposed of on land, industrial wastewater, and the residues of refuse. These include ammonium, which is converted to nitrous acid.
Note Nitric acid is taken up by aquatic plants as a nutrient. Through this process, river water is naturally purified.
c) Recording The results of a survey must always be recorded in a list. Although various lists can be considered according to the method and scale of the surveys, the measurement items are entered in columns and the dates, time, and locations of the measurements are generally arranged in rows. Lists of some specific items can be prepared, with the measurement locations entered in columns and the measurement dates entered in the rows.
| | Date | Time
| Location |
| Item A | | | |
| Item B | | | |
| Item C | | | |
| Item D | | | | |
The values obtained from the measurement are not the same, even when the same observer repeats the measurement several times, using the same water sample. The allowable range of such variation in measurement values differs according to measurement items. Observers become able to judge the range through experience. Ideally, measurement should be conducted three times with the same water sample to derive an average value. If one value is far from the other two, this value should be excluded and a datum is derived by averaging the remaining two values.
Subsequently, graphs and other means of presentation should be prepared, based on the lists, in order that people can understand all the measurement results at a glance. They will show the differences between the upper streams and lower streams, seasonal changes, changes over a week and in a day, and the differences between the various parameters.
It is recommended that experts be asked for advice by showing them the results of observations and surveys. These should also be made available to as many people as possible. In this way, they will be utilized as a means of solving the problems.
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Finally abservers should review the purpose of the survey. Subsequent surveys should be planned through a study of what is clarified and what remains unclarified by the results of the measurement.
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| 2. Formulation of measures - Cooperation in a group
| After raising awareness of local problems, conducting surveys of the problems, and clarification of the causes of the problems, measures to solve the problems should be considered.
In a group, members need to reach agreement concerning their activities for the solution of environmental problems. Brainstorming is one of the methods to draw conclusions from various opinions in a group. In brainstorming, each member of a group provides his/her opinion freely, and based on these opinions, the views of the group are formulated.
| < Materials to be prepared >
- Cards (10 cm x 5 cm) Ten or more cards for each person
Nametags are recommended.
- Paper (1 m x 1 m) One sheet for each group
- Marker pens One or more marker pens for each group
- Pens and pencils Each person brings them.
< Time required > Time required for one course of brainstorming is approximately 45 minutes. If several groups
participate in brainstorming, ten minutes multiplied by the number of groups is additionally required due to the time required for the final presentation (See Procedure (7)).
< Procedure > (1) Grouping Four to seven members are appropriate for a group. When there are many participants, they are divided into several groups.
(2) Appointment of a facilitator If participants are unfamiliar with brainstorming, it is recommended that they have a facilitator to lead the discussion. The facilitator should lead the discussion according to the theme, control the use of time, and lead the participants to the drawing of conclusions from various opinions. It is also important that the facilitator creates an atmosphere in which all the group members actively offer their opinions.
(3) Confirmation of the theme
All the group members confirm the theme of the brainstorming.
Themes should not be very limited but should be the
ones on which all members can offer concrete opinions.
For example, "Environmental problems of the XX River"
or "Measures to improve the water quality of the XX
River."
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(4) Writing opinions Each group member writes his/her opinions of the
theme on cards at random. One opinion is written on each card. Five minutes is sufficient for this phase. |
(5) Arrangement of the cards
 |
All members examine all the cards of their group one
by one, and arrange the cards with a similar content
into groups on a large sheet of paper. If members think
of new ideas during this procedure, the ideas may be
written on cards and added to the appropriate group
of cards. The members advance the discussion even more
by exchanging the cards between the groups. When the
grouping is finally determined, write a circle around
each group of cards with a marker pen, and give a title
to each group. |
Note: In order that participants offer as many
opinions as possible, it should not be allowed
in brainstorming to criticize or deny any other participant's opinion. When two conflicting opinions are delivered, for example, "the
XX River is polluted" and "the XX River is clean," it is recommended not to deny one
opinion but to consider the reasons for the two conflicting opinions and create an
overall view that includes both the opinions.
6.Consideration of the relationship between the groups
Members discuss the relationship between the groups of cards by drawing lines between them and combining some groups together. Through this phase, members consider the structure of the whole. It will take fifteen to thirty minutes for (5) and (6).
7.Presentations and exchange of opinions
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The conclusions of each group are presented to
the other groups with the use of the completed
figure. The group members answer questions
asked by the members of the other groups, and ask
them for different ideas. This is a good practice
in expressing their views clearly in words, since
they need to consider ways in which members of
the other groups can understand their viewpoint.
In addition, through receiving questions and
having unforeseen problems pointed out by the
other groups, they learn that one theme can be
interpreted from various perspectives. It takes
five to ten minutes for the presentations from each
group. |
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Brainstorming can be adopted not only for the formulation of measures to solveproblems, but also for the clarification of problems
before surveys, for the determination of survey methods, for surmising the causes of problems based on the survey results, and in
various other situations.
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| 3. Implementation of solutions - Measures to take in daily life
Water is used for cooking, washing and taking a bath every day, and becomes polluted. Such domestic wastewater is directly discharged into rivers and on the ground to be naturally purified, or it is artificially treated in water purification facilities. However, not all polluted water can be purified to be completely clean and safe. Consequently, it is important to reduce pollution from domestic wastewater. Several measures that can be quickly taken in daily life are introduced here, in order to improve river water pollution caused by domestic wastewater.
>>> In order not to pollute the water, the dishes used at meals should be wiped with used paper and rags, or food residues should be scraped off with rubber spatulas, before washing them with water.
- Water quality is significantly affected by oil and seasonings included in the food and the ingredients of drinks other than water, even in small amounts.
>>>Excessive use of detergents should be avoided when washing the dishes.
- Water that has been used to wash rice or boil noodles can clean oil on the dishes without detergents.
- Using cloths made of pure acrylic fibers is effective for cleaning the dishes.
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< Cloth of acrylic fibers >
An acrylic fiber is made of approximately 1,500 fine fibers. Since dirt is scrubbed away by these fine fibers with a fineness of 1/1000 mm, detergents are unnecessary.
>>>The quantity of detergent should be adjusted to the degree of dirtiness.
>>>The components of commercial detergents should be known.
- Various kinds of components are included in commercial detergents. Each of the surface active agents that remove the dirt, auxiliary agents that assist the action of the surface active agents, and additives that include perfumes and dye, has their own properties.
Some synthetic detergents include LAS (linear alkylate sulfonate: a surface active agent) and fluorescence whitener (dye). Since they are persistent, they accumulate in the environment and the bodies of living organisms to adversely affect them. In addition, phosphate, which is often added to promote foaming, is one of the causes of eutrophication, which results in deterioration of the river water. Consequently, it is recommended to check the constituents indicated on the labels of products and buy detergents without these constituents.
To ensure that these measures are effective, we must practice them in our daily life over a long preiod.
We should consider measures that are suitable for the lifestyle of each of us, and practice them conscientiously.
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| Chapter III Examples of Activities
1. Program of a workshop on environmental protection activities
| A workshop on environmental protection activities was held in Lamphun Municipality, Thailand, on 26-28 January 2002. This program was prepared mainly by a Japanese working group through consultations with people in Thailand during two field surveys and an exchange of opinions between the local residents and Lamphun Municipality. |
< Workshop for leaders > [Date]
Saturday 26 January 2002 [Participants] The citizens of Lamphun, who are expected to become local leaders of environmental protection activities (approximately 30 participants, including fifteen representatives of the communities of Lamphun Municipality, teachers, and volunteer housewives and students)
[Objectives]
- Learning about approaches to activities for raising the environmental awareness of the general public
- Obtaining basic knowledge concerning water pollution and water quality analysis
[Program]
- Brainstorming by all participants (Theme: the environmental problems of Lamphun Municipality, focusing on the Kuang River)
- Measurement of water pollution using the Pack Test, using the leftover food from the lunch and seasonings (To show that matters close to individuals are the cause of the pollution of river water)
 Participamtsin the observation visit |
 Handouts |
[Lectures ]
- (1) The structure of urban environmental problems in Lamphun Municipality, including the background to the pollution of the Kuang River, and problems in the local community (The former officer in charge of town planning of the Lamphun District)
- (2) The water quality and wastewater facility treatment of the Kuang River (Japanese working group)
- (3) Guidance on measures to improve the quality of domestic wastewater (Japanese working group)
- (4) Measurement of river water quality using the Pack Test (Japanese working group)
< Observation visit to the Kuang River >
[Date]
Sunday 27 January 2002 [Participants] 50 ordinary citizens, including children
[Objectives] Arousing interest in the environment of the local river and raising awareness of the
need for environmental protection
[Program]
- Visit to the wastewater treatment facilities within the Northern Region Industrial Estate on upper Kuang Rever
- Visit to the head gate and barrage for irrigation
- Lunchtime: Introduction of washing dishes with rubber spatulas and acrylic cloths (Measures to prevent the pollution of wastewater)
- The practice of water quality
- Visit to the wastewater treatment facilities measurement using the Pack Test of Lamphun Municipality
- Measurement of the river water with handmade penetration gauges
2. Attached documents (1) Questionnaires (used in the workshop for leaders for their own review)
(2) Leaflet "Measures to take in daily life to clean the river water |
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| Questionnaire at the Beginning of the Workshop
This questionnaire is used to find out your expectations and requests concerning the workshop. This is also used for the review of the workshop at the end.
| Name |
(Question)
What do you expect of this workshop (or project)?
For example:
- What do you think can be obtained from this workshop (or project)?
- What do you feel are the current environmental problems of the Kuang River and Lamphun Municipality?
- Do you have any requests or hopes for this workshop (or project)?
- Please write any other opinions.
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Questionnaire for the Review of the Workshop
This questionnaire is used for the review of a workshop and yourself.
| Name |
| (Question) What do you think about this workshop at the end? What changes would you make from the beginning of the workshop?
| Good points:
You are aware of new things, obtained new knowledge, and understood something better.
| Bad points:
You are disappointed about the contents of the workshop, could not understand, and have a different view. Please write any other opinions.
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Conclusion
As mentioned at the beginning, we hope that this manual will be improved through the cooperation of people who use it in their locality. Their frank opinions and requests concerning this manual will be welcome.
Contact us at:
(in Japanese and English)
Global Environment Centre Foundation
2-110 Ryokuchikoen, Tsurumi-ku, Osaka
JAPAN 538-0036
Tel: +81-6-6915-4121
Fax: +81-6-6915-0181
Email: gec-manual@unep.or.jp |
(in Thai)
Lamphun Municipality
Tadsaban Rd., Lamphun 51000
THAILAND
Tel: +66-53-511-013/540
Fax: +66-53-511-092
Email: prapatpoo@hotmail.com |
< Members of the Japanese Working Group >
Kanji Okauchi เThe President of Kyoritsu Chemical-Check Lab., Corp. Participated in the project for environmental monitoring by the Global Environment Centre Foundation and served as a lecturer for technical training for environmental monitoring implemented in Hanoi City, Vietnam in 2000. Member of Japan Society on Water Environment and the Japanese Society of Limnology.
Tai Harada Participated in activities for the development and promotion of survey methods for the water environment in Kasumigaura, Ibaragi Prefecture, Japan Cooperated in the preparation of a textbook on environmental surveys for local people and NGOs (written in Indonesian). Specialized in analytical chemistry and environmental education. Representative of Action Research Kasumigaura. Japanese coordinator of the Global Rivers Environmental Education Network (GREEN). Member of the Japan Society on Water Environment, the Japan Society for Analytical Chemistry, the Japan Association on the Environmental Studies, and the Japanese Society of Environmental Education. Environmental counselor of the Ministry of the Environment
Tsuneya Tsuchinaga
Technical Adviser of Tatsuta Environmental Analysis Service Inc.
SpecialLecturer at Osaka Women's University, Osaka Institute of Technology, and Osaka Sangyo
University.
The themes during his tenure at the Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences
were the restoration and creation of the urban water environment and the relationship between water
and human beings. Director of the Kansai Branch of the Japan Society on Water Environment. Manager of the Study Group for Waterside. Member of the Japan Society on Water Environment,
Japan Society for Impact Assessment, and Japanese Association for Water Resources and
Environment.
Yae Minohara
Representative of Aqua Friends (the auxiliary organization of advisors on domestic wastewater in Yao City, Osaka Prefecture, Japan) Participates in activities for raising the environmental awareness of the general public and for environmental education among primary school children in order to improve the riparian environment of the Yamato River and the Onji River in Osaka Prefecture. Also, in cooperation with the local government, participates in the creation of riparian habitats by laying mats of palm fiber and planting plants on them in channels whose sides and bottoms are made of concrete for the purification of the water and the consideration of aquatic life, and is currently observing the progress. Member of Recycling Circle, Committee member of the Onji River Environment Network Committee, and Environmental counselor of the Ministry of the Environment.
Global Environment Centre Foundation 2-110 Ryokuchikoen, Tsurumi-ku, Osaka 538-0036 JAPAN Tel: +81-6-6915-4121 Fax: +81-6-6915-0181
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